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* Footnotes
- A.M. 3668, A.C. 336.
*H Now it came to pass, after that Alexander the son of Philip the Macedonian, who first reigned in Greece, coming out of the land of Cethim, had overthrown Darius, king of the Persians and Medes:
Ver. 1. Now. Lit. "And." H. — Thus many Heb. books commence, as Ex. Jos. Bar. &c. C. — Greece, over the whole. He was chosen generalissimo. H. — He conquered many of the Greeks, and overthrew Darius Condomanus, A. 3674. C. — His dominion in Syria may be meant. Grot. — Alexander was the first who reigned in that great monarchy, which he founded. W.
*H He fought many battles, and took the strong holds of all, and slew the kings of the earth:
Ver. 2. Holds. He was never defeated. Just. xii.
* Summa
*S Part 2, Ques 58, Article 1
[I-II, Q. 58, Art. 1]
Whether Every Virtue Is a Moral Virtue?
Objection 1: It would seem that every virtue is a moral virtue. Because moral virtue is so called from the Latin _mos,_ i.e. custom. Now, we can accustom ourselves to the acts of all the virtues. Therefore every virtue is a moral virtue.
Obj. 2: Further, the Philosopher says (Ethic. ii, 6) that moral virtue is "a habit of choosing the rational mean." But every virtue is a habit of choosing: since the acts of any virtue can be done from choice. And, moreover, every virtue consists in following the rational mean in some way, as we shall explain further on (Q. 64, AA. 1, 2, 3). Therefore every virtue is a moral virtue.
Obj. 3: Further, Cicero says (De Invent. Rhet. ii) that "virtue is a habit like a second nature, in accord with reason." But since every human virtue is directed to man's good, it must be in accord with reason: since man's good "consists in that which agrees with his reason," as Dionysius states (Div. Nom. iv). Therefore every virtue is a moral virtue.
_On the contrary,_ The Philosopher [says] (Ethic. i, 13): "When we speak of a man's morals, we do not say that he is wise or intelligent, but that he is gentle or sober." Accordingly, then, wisdom and understanding are not moral virtues: and yet they are virtues, as stated above (Q. 57, A. 2). Therefore not every virtue is a moral virtue.
_I answer that,_ In order to answer this question clearly, we must consider the meaning of the Latin word _mos;_ for thus we shall be able to discover what a _moral_ virtue is. Now _mos_ has a twofold meaning. For sometimes it means custom, in which sense we read (Acts 15:1): "Except you be circumcised after the manner (_morem_) of Moses, you cannot be saved." Sometimes it means a natural or quasi-natural inclination to do some particular action, in which sense the word is applied to dumb animals. Thus we read (2 Macc. 1:2) that "rushing violently upon the enemy, like lions [*Leonum more, i.e. as lions are in the habit of doing], they slew them": and the word is used in the same sense in Ps. 67:7, where we read: "Who maketh men of one manner (_moris_) to dwell in a house." For both these significations there is but one word in Latin; but in the Greek there is a distinct word for each, for the word _ethos_is written sometimes with a long, and sometimes a short _e._
Now _moral_ virtue is so called from _mos_ in the sense of a natural or quasi-natural inclination to do some particular action. And the other meaning of _mos,_ i.e. _custom,_ is akin to this: because custom becomes a second nature, and produces an inclination similar to a natural one. But it is evident that inclination to an action belongs properly to the appetitive power, whose function it is to move all the powers to their acts, as explained above (Q. 9, A. 1). Therefore not every virtue is a moral virtue, but only those that are in the appetitive faculty.
Reply Obj. 1: This argument takes _mos_ in the sense of _custom._
Reply Obj. 2: Every act of virtue can be done from choice: but no virtue makes us choose aright, save that which is in the appetitive part of the soul: for it has been stated above that choice is an act of the appetitive faculty (Q. 13, A. 1). Wherefore a habit of choosing, i.e. a habit which is the principle whereby we choose, is that habit alone which perfects the appetitive faculty: although the acts of other habits also may be a matter of choice.
Reply Obj. 3: "Nature is the principle of movement" (Phys. ii, text. 3). Now to move the faculties to act is the proper function of the appetitive power. Consequently to become as a second nature by consenting to the reason, is proper to those virtues which are in the appetitive faculty. ________________________
SECOND
*H And he went through even to the ends of the earth: and took the spoils of many nations: and the earth was quiet before him.
Ver. 3. Earth, even to India, beyond which the ancients knew of nothing. — Quiet, or silent; depopulated, (Is. xiv. 7.) and obedient. Hab. ii. 20.
*H And he gathered a power, and a very strong army: and his heart was exalted and lifted up:
Ver. 4. Up. He was spoiled by prosperity, (C.) and would pass for a god, and be styled "king of the world." Just. xii.
*H And after these things, he fell down upon his bed, and knew that he should die.
Ver. 6. Bed. Some suppose through poison, (Diod. xvii. S. Jer. ad Lætam.) or excess of wine. Athen. x. 11. — This was enough. H. — So perished the man who would claim divine honours! C.
*H And he called his servants, the nobles that were brought up with him from his youth: and he divided his kingdom among them, while he was yet alive.
Ver. 7. Servants. On the ninth day of sickness which preceded his death, he admitted all his soldiers to kiss his hand. Then he asked his friends, if they thought they should find such another king? As they were silent, he predicted what bloodshed would ensue, and told them to bury him in the temple of Ammon. When they asked to whom he left the throne, he said, "to the most worthy." He gave his ring to Perdiccas; whence all inferred, that he should be regent till the proper heirs came of age. Perdiccas desired to know when he would have divine honours: to which Alexander replied with these his last words, "when you are happy:" (Just. xii. Diod. xvii.) as much as to say, never. H. — This seems contrary to the sacred historian. But his authority is far superior. C. — Kingdom. This is otherwise by Q. Curtius; though he acknowledges that divers were of that opinion, and that it had been delivered by some authors. l. x. But here we find from the sacred text that he was in error. Ch. — By delivering his ring to Perdiccas, Alexander gave him authority to make this division. W. — Many assert, that he gave him directions in his last will. This was observed for some time. v. 10.
* Footnotes
- A.M. 3681, A.C. 323.
*H And Alexander reigned twelve years, and he died.
Ver. 8. Twelve. Jos. &c. Some add, a few months. He was about thirty-three years old.
*H And they all put crowns upon themselves after his death, and their sons after them, many years; and evils were multiplied in the earth.
Ver. 10. Death, twelve years being expired, when all the posterity of Alexander were dead. His generals gradually destroyed each other, and four took the diadem at the same time: Ptolemy, in Egypt; Seleucus, in Syria; Cassander, in Macedonia; and Lysimachus, in Thrace. Just. xiii. and xv. C. — Those who choose to read in order, may, after the preface 2 B. ii. 20, read the above, then 2 B. iii. 1. W.
* Footnotes
- A.M. 3829, A.C. 175.
*H And there came out of them a wicked root, Antiochus the Illustrious, the son of king Antiochus, who had been a hostage at Rome: and he reigned in the hundred and thirty-seventh year of the kingdom of the Greeks.
Ver. 11. Antiochus the illustrious; Epiphanes, the younger son of Antiochus the great, who usurped the kingdom, to the prejudice of his nephew Demetrius, son of his elder brother, Seleucus Philopater. Ch. — Epiphanes means "renowed." W. — He took this title, particularly after the Samaritans had offered it to him. Jos. xii. Vaillant. A. 145. — His medals have always God prefixed, "the god appearing;" as he came opportunely, like a god, to defend the kingdom against the Egyptians, after he had been fourteen years a hostage at Rome. C. — Nothing could be more abject than his character. S. Jer. in Dan. viii. and ix. Athen. v. 4. and x. 12. — Greeks, counting not from the beginning of the reign of Alexander, but from the first year of Seleucus Nicator. Ch. — The era of the Seleucides began in spring or autumn, A. 3692, B.C. 312, though the Chaldees and Ptolemy date from the following spring. C. — The Grecian monarchy had then stood twenty years. Eus. W.
*H In those days there went out of Israel wicked men, and they persuaded many, saying: Let us go and make a covenant with the heathens that are round about us: for since we departed from them, many evils have befallen us.
Ver. 12. Men. Jason attempted to supplant Onias III. and introduced pagan customs, when he was dead. Menelaus treated him in like manner. Being cited to pay what he had promised, he left Lysimachus in his place, who was slain in the temple, which he was robbing. 2 Mac. iv. — Us. Thus the Jews complained in the days of Jeremias, (xliv. 18.) and the Christian religion was blamed for all the miseries which fell upon the Roman empire. C. — S. Aug. proves in his City of God, that this accusation was false. H.
*H And they built a place of exercise in Jerusalem, according to the laws of the nations:
Ver. 15. Exercise, to wrestle (C.) and teach. Lyran.
*H And they made themselves prepuces, and departed from the holy covenant, and joined themselves to the heathens, and were sold to do evil:
Ver. 16. Made. S. Jerom thinks the attempt useless. But the Jews discovered the art. S. Epip. Pond. xvi. Bartol. 1 Cor. vii. 18. — Sold to the devil, becoming his instruments. 3 K. xxi. 25. Rom. vii. 14. C. — Go to 2 Mac. iv. 7.
* Footnotes
- A.M. 3834, A.C. 170.
*H And the kingdom was established before Antiochus, and he had a mind to reign over the land of Egypt, that he might reign over two kingdoms.
Ver. 17. Egypt. He coveted this kingdom, having Syria already. W. — He was not very fit for war: but Egypt was not under Philometor a child, and Ephphanes made an easy conquest. This was his second visit to that country. While he besieged Alexandria, a report of his death was spread; and as he was informed that the Jews rejoiced at it, he fell upon them. v. 21. C. — After v. 20, read 2 B. iv. 21. W.
* Footnotes
- A.M. 3834.
*H And he proudly entered into the sanctuary, and took away the golden altar, and the candlestick of light, and all the vessels thereof, and the table of proposition, and the pouring vessels, and the vials, and the little mortars of gold, and the veil, and the crowns, and the golden ornament that was before the temple: and he broke them all in pieces.
Ver. 23. Sanctuary. Josephus (xii. 6.) writes, that Antiochus slew such as opposed his entrance into the city, and afterwards those who opened the gates, but would have prevented his plundering the temple. W. — Menelaus conducted the king. 2 Mac. v. 15. Profane authors condemn this conduct of the king towards a city subject to him. Jos. c. App. 2. — Diodorus relates several fables on this occasion. C.
* Summa
*S Part 4, Ques 22, Article 4
[III, Q. 22, Art. 4]
Whether the Effect of the Priesthood of Christ Pertained Not Only to Others, but Also to Himself?
Objection 1: It would seem that the effect of the priesthood of Christ pertained not only to others, but also to Himself. For it belongs to the priest's office to pray for the people, according to 2 Macc. 1:23: "The priests made prayer while the sacrifice was consuming." Now Christ prayed not only for others, but also for Himself, as we have said above (Q. 21, A. 3), and as expressly stated (Heb. 5:7): "In the days of His flesh, with a strong cry and tears He offered [Vulg.: 'offering'] up prayers and supplications to Him that was able to save Him from death." Therefore the priesthood of Christ had an effect not only in others, but also in Himself.
Obj. 2: Further, in His passion Christ offered Himself as a sacrifice. But by His passion He merited, not only for others, but also for Himself, as stated above (Q. 19, AA. 3, 4). Therefore the priesthood of Christ had an effect not only in others, but also in Himself.
Obj. 3: Further, the priesthood of the Old Law was a figure of the priesthood of Christ. But the priest of the Old Law offered sacrifice not only for others, but also for himself: for it is written (Lev. 16:17) that "the high-priest goeth into the sanctuary to pray for himself and his house, and for the whole congregation of Israel." Therefore the priesthood of Christ also had an effect not merely in others, but also in Himself.
_On the contrary,_ We read in the acts of the Council of Ephesus [*Part III, ch. i, anath. 10]: "If anyone say that Christ offered sacrifice for Himself, and not rather for us alone (for He Who knew not sin needed no sacrifice), let him be anathema." But the priest's office consists principally in offering sacrifice. Therefore the priesthood of Christ had no effect in Himself.
_I answer that,_ As stated above (A. 1), a priest is set between God and man. Now he needs someone between himself and God, who of himself cannot approach to God; and such a one is subject to the priesthood by sharing in the effect thereof. But this cannot be said of Christ; for the Apostle says (Heb. 7:25): "Coming of Himself to God, always living to make intercession for us [Vulg.: 'He is able to save for ever them that come to God by Him; always living,' etc.]." And therefore it is not fitting for Christ to be the recipient of the effect of His priesthood, but rather to communicate it to others. For the influence of the first agent in every genus is such that it receives nothing in that genus: thus the sun gives but does not receive light; fire gives but does not receive heat. Now Christ is the fountain-head of the entire priesthood: for the priest of the Old Law was a figure of Him; while the priest of the New Law works in His person, according to 2 Cor. 2:10: "For what I have pardoned, if I have pardoned anything, for your sakes have I done it in the person of Christ." Therefore it is not fitting that Christ should receive the effect of His priesthood.
Reply Obj. 1: Although prayer is befitting to priests, it is not their proper office, for it is befitting to everyone to pray both for himself and for others, according to James 5:16: "Pray for one another that you may be saved." And so we may say that the prayer by which Christ prayed for Himself was not an action of His priesthood. But this answer seems to be precluded by the Apostle, who, after saying (Heb. 5:6), "Thou art a priest for ever according to the order of Melchisedech," adds, "Who in the days of His flesh offering up payers," etc., as quoted above (Obj. 1): so that it seems that the prayer which Christ offered pertained to His priesthood. We must therefore say that other priests partake in the effect of their priesthood, not as priests, but as sinners, as we shall state farther on (ad 3). But Christ had, simply speaking, no sin; though He had the "likeness of sin in the flesh [Vulg.: 'sinful flesh']," as is written Rom. 8:3. And, consequently, we must not say simply that He partook of the effect of His priesthood but with this qualification-- in regard to the passibility of the flesh. Wherefore he adds pointedly, "that was able to save Him from death."
Reply Obj. 2: Two things may be considered in the offering of a sacrifice by any priest--namely, the sacrifice itself which is offered, and the devotion of the offerer. Now the proper effect of priesthood is that which results from the sacrifice itself. But Christ obtained a result from His passion, not as by virtue of the sacrifice, which is offered by way of satisfaction, but by the very devotion with which out of charity He humbly endured the passion.
Reply Obj. 3: A figure cannot equal the reality, wherefore the figural priest of the Old Law could not attain to such perfection as not to need a sacrifice of satisfaction. But Christ did not stand in need of this. Consequently, there is no comparison between the two; and this is what the Apostle says (Heb. 7:28): "The Law maketh men priests, who have infirmity; but the word of the oath, which was since the Law, the Son Who is perfected for evermore." _______________________
FIFTH
* Footnotes
- A.M. 3836, A.C. 168.
*H And after two full years, the king sent the chief collector of his tributes to the cities of Juda, and he came to Jerusalem with a great multitude.
Ver. 30. The chief collector, &c. Apollonius. Ch. 2 Mac. v. 24. W. — He basely fell upon the unsuspecting citizens on a sabbath day. H.
*H And he took the spoils of the city, and burnt it with fire, and threw down the houses thereof, and the walls thereof round about:
Ver. 33. Fire, thus destroying a great part. Jos. Ant. xii. 7.
*H And they built the city of David with a great and strong wall, and with strong towers, and made it a fortress for them:
Ver. 35. The city of David. That is, the castle of Sion. Ch. — In it was placed a garrison of Macedonians. W. — This castle had been occupied by Syrians before. It was now enlarged. 2 Mac. iv. 27. and v. 5.
*H And this was a place to lie in wait against the sanctuary, and an evil devil in Israel.
Ver. 38. Sanctuary, to pillage all who came to the temple. C. — An evil devil. Literally, an adversary, watching constantly to do harm, as the evil spirit is always watching and seeking whom he could devour. Ch.
*H And the inhabitants of Jerusalem fled away by reason of them and the city was made the habitation of strangers, and she became a stranger to her own seed, and her children forsook her.
Ver. 40. Fled with Judas, &c. 2 B. v. Josephus (xii. 7.) assures us that the Samaritans flattered Epiphanes, and begged their temple might be consecrated to Jupiter, &c. They pretended that they were of Sidonian extraction.
* Footnotes
-
*
Tobias
2:6
Remembering the word which the Lord spoke by Amos the prophet: Your festival days shall be turned into lamentation and mourning.
-
*
Amos
8:10
And I will turn your feasts into mourning, and all your songs into lamentation: and I will bring up sackcloth upon every back of yours, and baldness upon every head: and I will make it as the mourning of an only son, and the latter end thereof as a bitter day.
* Footnotes
- A.M. 3837, A.C. 167.
*H And king Antiochus wrote to all his kingdom, that all the people should be one: and every one should leave his own law.
Ver. 43. Be one. This reason herself teaches. But the king wished to establish a false religion, or rather he desired to root out all religion, and to shew his authority. H. — Demere superstitionem & mores Græcorum dare adnixus. Tacit. v. — He was not content with plunder, unless he ruined souls. W.
*H And many of Israel consented to his service, and they sacrificed to idols, and profaned the sabbath.
Ver. 45. Service, or worship, (C.) introduced by Epiphanes. H.
*H And he commanded the holy places to be profaned, and the holy people of Israel.
Ver. 49. People. He forced them to eat forbidden meat.
* Footnotes
- A.M. 3837.
*H On the fifteenth day of the month, Casleu, in the hundred and forty-fifth year, king Antiochus set up the abominable idol of desolation upon the altar of God, and they built altars throughout all the cities of Juda round about:
Ver. 57. Fifteenth. In all other places the 25th, whence this may be incorrect, (C.) or the altar was now set up, (H.) though sacrifices were not yet offered. C. — Idol. The statue of Jupiter Olympius, (Ch.) as Daniel (ix.) had foretold, as a figure of what antichrist would do, (Mat. xxiv. W.) as well as the Romans, when they took Jerusalem.
*H And they burnt incense, and sacrificed at the doors of the houses and in the streets.
Ver. 58. Doors, to Trivia. Isai. lvii. 8. C.
*H And they cut in pieces, and burnt with fire the books of the law of God:
Ver. 59. Law, and all the sacred writings. Jos. Sulpit. ii. — The pious Jews secreted what they could, and Judas took care to collect them. 2 B. i. 14. and iii. 48. C.
*H Thus by their power did they deal with the people of Israel, that were found in the cities month after month.
Ver. 61. After month. The officers took an account of the slain, (Grot.) or the dedication of the statue was renewed, or rather the king's nativity was kept. 2 B. vi. 7. C. — But this would only occur once a-year. People were compelled to sacrifice on the same day of each month on which the statue had been dedicated. v. 62.
*H And on the five and twentieth day of the month they sacrificed upon the altar of the idol that was over against the altar of God.
Ver. 62. Over-against, or (H.) "upon," επι. The Greek altars were of a smaller size.
*H And many of the people of Israel determined with themselves, that they would not eat unclean things: and they chose rather to die, than to be defiled with unclean meats:
Ver. 65. Many. Eleazar, and the seven Machabees, &c. C.
*H And there was very great wrath upon the people.
Ver. 67. Wrath. God seemed displeased, as he was with too many. The pious were exposed to various trials, and to the fury of persecutors. H. — Read 2 B. v. 11. W.